Puppetry Theater In Pakistan Media Essay

Puppetry Theater In Pakistan Media Essay A couple of months back I attended the Karachi Literary festival, over there I saw puppeteers perform, a nostalgic feeling took over and reminded me of my childhood days when I enjoyed puppet shows with my parents at carnivals, birthday parties, entertainment in school and etc.In fact in primary school level it was almost necessary in our arts and craft class to make hand puppets with socks and develop stories and characters around them. I remember it being very popular even on television, characters like Uncle Sargam and the show Kalian were shown in the 90s on PTV.It was once a vibrant part of our popular culture but with the advent of technological changes, lack of funds and constant development this form of art and its popularity is retreating into darkness. In this dissertation I am going examine the rise and fall of theater puppetry in Pakistan with particular focus on reasons of decline of this industry in comparison to other countries in the subcontinent. I will provide an analysis of the downfall and the efforts of The Raafi Peer Theater to revive puppetry in Pakistan. Literature review: Puppetry captures the imagination and interest of young students and therefore used in many schools in the west and east as a medium to communicate and teach the children. Stories are told and retold through toys, gestures, animals and puppets using dramatic voices and theatrical effects. The popularity of puppets as a method for teaching can be traced for centuries. In the Flemish manuscript The Romance of Alexander, written in 1340, there is an illustration of glove pup- pets. Xenophon and Plutarch mention the use of marionettes. Medieval morality plays are performed by marionettes, and the pup- pets popularity is alluded to by Cervantes and Ben Jonson, Haydn, Mozart and Bach compose brief operas for marionettes in the wealthy court circles of the eighteenth century.  [1]   In Puppetry as an Educative Media Roberta Jane Confino reveals how puppetry can be transformed into an effective media by the educators today.Puppetery is often related to artwork and brings out the creativity in children as it mixes both memory with imagination, it seeks expression rather than true representation.  [2]  It becomes the educators responsibility to guide, encourage and build a rapport with child. The most important function of the teacher in an art room, and perhaps in every other school room also, is to create a creative atmosphere.  [3]   Puppets can be created from various objects such as finger puppets involve paper cut outs and material to fit over a child finger. Hand puppets involve movement of the entire hand with fingers and different areas. Shadow puppets are created when rod puppets are shown on a screen illuminated from behind. Marionettes, or string puppets may be simply worked with one or two strings or they may be made more complex.  [4]  Puppets may be made of materials found around the house or in nature. Painted branches or twisted scraps of wood are the beginning elements of characterization, paper-bag puppets, milk container puppets, puppets with simplistic design, and puppets with detailed color or features.  [5]  These puppets offer great opportunities for diversity, the possibilities are almost endless and Creativity and imagination can flourish  [6]   Technological advancements have also played a major role with animation and computer graphics. These days characters are made on the computer and shown on television catering to a larger audience. Steve Tillis in Art of puppetry in the Age of Media production questions if the figures made of the computer can be termed as puppets and if not what the reasons are for it. Is a person operating a puppet (tangible or virtual) in real-time is doing what puppeteers have always done; but a person working at a keyboard with a virtual puppet-despite the fact that one is controlling the movement of the puppet-does not seem to be engaged in the same activity, despite the fact that the result (i.e., movement of the figure) is the same.  [7]  One might say that the computer has freed the puppet from its dependence on conventional puppeteers, but computers have not freed the puppet from the necessity of human control of one sort or another. Steve Tillis brings the issue of tangibility as computer graphics figures are not tangible, they cannot be touched. However there are striking similarities in the creation of computer graphics figures and puppets: the creation of both involves the construction of a figure, in short, are artificial human constructs designed for manipulation (of one sort or another) by people.  [8]  Despite the similarities, I feel tangibility is a significant part that distinguishes the two. Puppets are as we have known them be thought of as tangible, while computer graphics figures are thought of as virtual puppets. The hands on experience of making the puppet, interacting with it, learning about it, integrating culture and history to it cannot be compared to a figure made on computer. There is a pleasure still to be found in the live performance of a tangible puppet, the direct confrontation between an audience and a living object that is distinct from the particular pleasures of media puppets. Rachel A.Bonney in her article on, Teaching Anthropology through folklore for the Anthropology Education Quarterly brings an anthropological view on the importance of folklore as an educational tool for children and the society as these stories hold value, cultural traditions that are passed on from one generation to the other. In this article Rachel A.Bonney focuses on how storytelling can be used for educational practices not only for children but at college level as well. She has been using this method for the past ten years as a teaching aid in both introductory and advanced anthropology classes.  [9]  She describes three separate uses of folklore: collecting folklore through fieldwork interviewing, analyzing themes in these stories and using folklore through puppetry and plays.  [10]  She points out how folktales are used as sources of information and insights on child-rearing and making them more aware of other cultures and on their morals, traditions and values. However, children are more familiar with their own culture and traditions than of others and therefore she used American or European cultures to analyze folklore material as it is easier and effective to identify and relate. For her study she used Grimms fairy tales such as Hansel and Gretel and Little Red Riding Hood because these two stories are popular in the American culture despite Medieval European origins and cultural change.  [11]  Furthermore she tells us how these stories are dramatized with puppet plays where students make their clothes, give them a face and make the surrounding that are illustrated to make it is culturally appropriate. They may range from stick puppets to socks, scraps of cloth, paper plates etc, and are often performed in a small scale setting and therefore it is cost effective.  [12]  Often additional sounds effects are used for example music, back vocals that are taped to enhance the dramatic presentation. Through background research for script writing students learn about another culture in depth, for example if the students were putting up a puppet show about Ali Baba and the forty thieves they would have to look in to the historical background, the roots of the charactors, what they wore in that time and so on. Rachel A.Bonneys argues that folklore might be seen as high tech in modern America, but her approaches have successfully shown us how Western and non-western values can be integrated to a childs bringing up not only in the literate society but as an effective device in non-literate society  [13]  . She further builds her argument by saying that anthropology is not exclusively an exotic and esoteric discipline for the study of primitive society. Anthropology is not for a few elite, but for everyone.  [14]   Her study on folklore tales is not restricted to the western world but also relatable here in the subcontinent. Much of the puppetry in the sub continent is associated with folklore stories based on historical themes. They hold great pride in their stories as they have been passed on from generations through oral history and have become a central part of identity of tradition and culture. Common folklores in the sub continent are of Heer Rahja,Sassi Pannu and Laila Majnu, these characters are recognized and referred to in their everyday lives. For example when someone is madly in love he will be referred to as Majnu not Shakespeares Romeo. Shakespeareans characters Romeo and Juliet represent undying love such is the case with Laila Majnu. Many additions and subtractions have been made to the story over the years but what remains constant is Majnus love for Laila. Puppets are portrayed differently around the sub continent for example in India they are popular in Tamil Nadu,Orrisa,Andhra Pradesh,Asaam and the West Bengal. They portrayed unique features of the art and are operated through strings attached to the knees, hips, wrists, shoulders that make each and every part of the body move in different directions just as humans do. This method is practiced till today. Thyagaraja Sharma, an English Professor, said that the art dated back to Indus Valley Civilization.  [15]  Excavations of clay dolls from the site were an indication of this long tradition. A lot of information about puppetry was seen in Sangam literature too. They are often religiously portrayed from epics like Mahabarata, Bhuddas life and Raamayana.Besides dealing with religious themes, Indian puppetry also conveys useful messages from Panchat`ntra and other mythological and historical epics.  [16]  Started initially as a medium of entertainment, puppetry became the media for propagation of ideas, dissemination of information, and educating the masses.  [17]   Anna Sobel, a professional puppeteer and an activist was intrigued by a show put up by the Indian puppeteers in the Smithsonian gallery in Washington DC.She spoke to them later and found out that they use puppets for social awareness programs such as AIDS in villages back home. In September she went to India on a nine month Fulbright grant to study Indian puppetry as a tool for social change in the primitive society.  [18]   In her article Mutual respect: Re-examining puppetry in India, Anna Sobel discusses how the uneducated class in India respond to puppetry and how their behavior changes because of it. As mentioned above India has a rich cultural association with puppets and with the help of government funding educational puppetry in not a foreign concept. The puppeteers took this responsibility as a moral obligation to the public which includes adults and children.  [19]  Sobel observed that the children in the village would get up early as four in the morning to practice and recite the story of Ramayana which they performed for forty one nights straight. They took this opportunity to provide extensive commentary on healing properties of local herbs and discussed educational themes.  [20]  She further observed how puppeteers were able to adapt a show to in the local ambiance much better than what she saw at the Smithsonian, as the audience recognized the stories, songs and characters. In addi tion, the live performance of the puppetry allowed direct rapport with the audience allowing them to be involved directly, the likely hood of them to remember the message more than if they saw the program on the television for example. Live shows are more common in the rural areas in India because they do not have access to mass media, such as television or newspaper. This may be the reason why in the cities puppetry is not common anymore as media has replaced this source of entertainment. However, the Indian government has still reinforced this craft because they use this as a tool for religious education. In Pakistan Rafi Peer theater workshop(RPTW) is one organization that has revived puppetry through theater,dance,music that has provided a rich cross cultural experience to audiences in Pakistan and abroad. In a country where accessing early childhood education is close to impossible, those who attend dropout at a early stage due to financial and family issues.RPTW is a non-government organization which is doing pioneering work in the field of Arts is run by the Peerzada family. Headed by Usmaan Peerzada, Faizaan Peerzada, Saadaan Peerzada, Imran Peerzada, Tasneem Peerzada and Salman Peerzada.It has built a Museum of Puppetry. It runs the Universal Child Art Foundation, promoting child art and visual learning globally. Presently it is developing a Theatre Arts training Institute. RPTW most important milestone is the establishment of the Museum of Puppetry in 2004.Till now it has organized over 25 international performing arts festivals. Festivals are one of the most popular attractions of cultural tourism, have been a part and parcel of South Asian culture for a long time. Pakistan Children Television (PCT) can be considered a landmark when it comes to educating children who lack formal education opportunities. Through PCT they started a show called,Sim Sim Hamara, an educational series of shows for children. It is a adaptation of Sesame Street has been created by RPTW in collaboration with the Sesame Workshop, New York, and funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). The project is the outcome of extensive research as it includes participants from different provinces .They worked with the government and other educational experts so that they can cater to the educational needs for the children. This TV series was set to provide high-quality early education resource for a larger audience. Their goal is to educate families and children and the fact that learning can happen in formal and non-formals means. They use examples from the real world for example reading prayers from The Holy Quran, buying vegetables from the local market, attending school, how to communicate with other people, measuring ingredients for roti as a basis for storylines and materials.

Jane Addams

Along with her companion Ellen Starr, Addams founded the Hull House, which is located in Chicago. If that is not enough, she was also the first woman from America to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. You may wonder how this woman was able to fulfill all of her achievements, eing a girl from a small community In Illinois.She was from a large family; her father was a well-to-do gentleman; her mother was very kind, she also had five brothers and sisters. When her mother died, her father remarried and they had two new step- brothers. Jane and her father had a very special relationship; he was there to encourage her and pursue a higher education. Even though it was expected of most women to get married and become housewives during that time, Jane was not going to settle for an average life. She attended Rockford Seminary for young ladies.She was one of the smartest and well Ilked people In her school, yet she wanted more. Her parents discouraged her aspirations to obtain a degree In medic ine by taking her on a trip to Europe. She became very ill on the duration of this trip and had to return home. upon arrival, her father passed away which sent Jane into a deep depression. After a long recovery period, she left home for Europe again, but this time, she visited the Toynbee Hall in England. This inspired her to open the Hull House with a friend, Ellen Starr.The Hull House, located in Chicago, outlasted the Depression of the 193ffs. The Hull House became the prime meeting spot for all sociologist's no matter the race or gender, who simply wanted their voice heard. It did not matter what you said or how you felt. All that mattered was those who wanted something, were free to say whatever they wished, speaking their minds. These two served many people in need during times of chaos and despair, and knew just how to handle difficult situations.Also, during this time, she was advocating many things, and they were becoming policies under President Franklin Roosevelt's reign. Addams had many great accomplishments in the sociological area of her life. She contributed greatly, but she was never considered as much as she should have been because she was a woman. She was looked down upon with her thoughts and ideas, and some began to question whether her Intentions were safe or not. In a typical life back In Jane Addams' days, women were supposed to deal with the social work. hereas the men were to dominate the sociological portion. She was considered a social worker, but everyone knows that her greatest accomplishments dealt with sociology. Jane far succeeded the necessities of being labeled a sociologist, but she continued to be ignored. She was not the only one to go unrecognized. Even those she worked with or associated with were also paid no attention. Another famous sociologist specifically, W. E. B. DuBois, a black man of that time, was also overlooked. Although many ‘Of2 alsapprovea 0T ner, sne would never let tnem get to ner. ne Knew wnat sne wanted, and what she had to do to get to that point. Later in life, Jane Addams became a very passionate feminist by philosophy. This was before the time of Women's Suffrage, so women did not really have a say. In order to be able to do this, she felt that going to the legislation would help solve this, meaning women would have the right to vote. She also thought that women should earn the right to produce aspirations in search of further opportunities to be made recognized. Jane Addams was a committed pacifist and early feminist, opposing to war and violence.Addams also participated in the International Congress of Women and established the Women's Peace Party in 91 5, while continuing to maintain her pacifist beliefs even after the United States entered World War I in 1917. She supported campaigns for suffering women, and was an outspoken advocate of internationalism, and was always concerned about the needs of others. Her international efforts were actually noticed in 1931 when she was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. She became the 1st American woman to receive the prestigious award. It is obvious that Addams was a very prominent fgure in developing sociology.Jane was an astonishing woman, and helped us construct ociety in a way that is still used today. She was still working hard in The Hull House and other organizations all the way up until her death in 1935. Addams went on to die of cancer, after only three days of even knowing of the illness. The funeral was held in the Hull House, bringing together thousands of people showing their appreciation and support. She lived a long successful seventy-five years. Jane Addams left this world with something to be proud of; knowing that she influenced thousands of lives with her many accomplishments.

Brief History of Art Therapy

A BRIEF HISTORY OF ART THERAPY Randy M. Vick This history of art therapy focuses on the precursory and continuing trends that have shaped the theory and practice and the literature that reflects this development. Scholarship, like history, builds on the foundations laid by others. I am indebted to the authors of four other histories that I found to be particularly useful in the preparation of this chapter. Both Malchiodi (1998) and Rubin (1999) have assembled histories based on contributing trends, as did Junge and Asawa (1994) who have pro-vided extensive details on the personalities and politics involved in the formation of the American Art Therapy Association. My fourth primary source (MacGregor, 1989), while never intended as a book about art therapy, has proven to be an excel-lent â€Å"prehistory† of the field. Each of these references provided information as well as inspiration and I encourage readers to consult them for additional perspectives. Finally, it should be noted here that art therapy was not a phenomenon exclusive to the United States. Readers interested in art therapy's development in Europe should consult Waller's (1991, 1998) two books on this subject. History is like a tapestry with each colored thread contributing not only to the formation of the image but to the strength and structure of the fabric itself. Imagine for a moment a tapestry with bobbins of different-colored threads, each adding a hue that becomes part of a new creation, and we can better understand the history of this field. INFLUENCES FROM THE DISTANT PAST AND NEIGHBORING FIELDS Art therapy is a hybrid discipline based primarily on the fields of art and psychology, drawing characteristics from each parent to evolve a unique new entity. But the inter weaving of the arts and healing is hardly a new phenomenon. It seems clear that this pairing is as old as human society itself, having occurred repeatedly throughout our history across place and time (Malchiodi, 1998). The development of the profession of art therapy can be seen as the formal application of a long-standing human tradi-tion influenced by the intellectual and social trends of the 20th century (Junge & Asawa, 1994). 1 From the Realms or Art Art making is an innate human tendency, so much so it has been argued that, like speech and tool making, this activity could be used to define our species (Dissana-yake, 1992). In his book, The Discovery of the Art of the Insane, MacGregor (1989) presents a history of the interplay of art and psychology spanning the last 300 years. This history covers theories of genius and insanity, biographies of â€Å"mad† artists, depictions of madness by artists, and the various attempts to reach an understanding of the potential art has as an aid to mental health treatment and diagnosis. In 1922, German psychiatrist Hans Prinzhorn (1922/1995) published The Artistry of the Men-tally III, a book that depicted and described the artistic productions of residents of in-sane asylums across Europe. This work challenged both psychiatric and fine arts professionals to reconsider their notions of mental illness and art (MacGregor, 1989). Even today, debate rages within the field variously titled outsider art/art brut/visionary art/folk art as experts struggle to place work by self-taught artists (some of whom have experienced mental illness) within the art historical canon (Borum, 1993/1994; Russell, 2002). Contemporary writers from art therapy and other disciplines continue to explore the notion of art practice for the purpose of personal exploration and growth (Alien, 1995; Cameron & Bryan, 1992; C. Moon, 2002) and to reevaluate the traditional boundaries between personal and public art (Lachman-Chapin et al. , 1999; Sigler, 1993; Spaniol, 1990; Vick, 2000). Medicine, Health, and Rehabilitation Hospitals have long served as important incubators for the field of art therapy. For better or worse, medical model concepts such as diagnosis, disease, and treatment have had a strong influence on the development of most schools of thought within Western psychotherapy, including art therapy. While psychiatry has always been the medical specialty most closely allied with the field, art therapists have worked with patients being treated for AIDS, asthma, burns, cancer, chemical dependency, trauma, tuberculosis, and other medical and rehabilitation needs (Malchiodi 1999a, 1999b). Our understanding of the interplay between biochemistry, mental status, and creativity continues to evolve and a new medical specialty, arts medicine, has recently emerged 2 (Malchiodi, 1998). All this seems to suggest that art therapy will continue to have a role in exploring the connections between body and mind. TRENDS IN 19TH- AND 20TH-CENTURY PSYCHOLOGY For much of human history mental illness was regarded with fear and misunderstanding as a manifestation of either divine or demonic forces. Reformers such as Rush in the United States and Pinel in France made great strides in creating a more humane environment for their patients. Freud, Kris, and others contributed to this rehumanization by theorizing that rather than being random nonsense, the productions of fantasy revealed significant information about the unique inner world of their maker (MacGregor, 1989; Rubin, 1999). Building on these theories, many writers began to examine how a specific sort of creative product—art—could be under-stood as an illustration of mental health or disturbance (Anastasi & Foley, 1941; Arnheim, 1954; Kreitler & Kreitler, 1972). Other authors began recognizing the po-tential art has as a tool within treatment (Winnicott, 1971). Soon enough, the term â€Å"art therapy† began to be used to describe a form of psychotherapy that placed art practices and interventions alongside talk as the central modality of treatment (Naumburg, 1950/1973). The significance psychoanalytic writers placed on early childhood experiences made the crossover of these theories into education an easy one (Junge & Asawa, 1994). Some progressive educators placed particular emphasis on the role art played in the overall development of children (Cane, 1951/1983; Kellogg, 1969; Lowenfeld, 1987; Uhlin, 1972/1984). This trend toward the therapeutic application of art within educational settings continues today (Anderson, 1978/1992; Bush, 1997; Henley, 1992). PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT AND RESEARCH In addition to psychoanalysis and the rehumanization of people with mental illness, one of the strongest trends to emerge within modern psychology has been the focus on standardized methods of diagnostic assessment and research. Whether discussing the work of a studio artist or the productions of a mentally ill individual, Kris (1952) argues that they both engage in the same psychic process, that is, â€Å"the placing of an inner experience, an inner image, into the outside world† (p. 115). This â€Å"method of projection† became the conceptual foundation for a dazzling array of so-called projective drawing assessments that evolved in psychology during the 20th century (Hammer, 1958/1980). These simple paper-and-pencil â€Å"tests,† with their formalized procedures and standardized methods of interpretation, became widely used in the evaluation and diagnosis of children and adults and are still employed to a lesser degree tod ay (though often with revamped purpose and procedure). Two parallel themes from this era are the relatively unstructured methods of art assessment (Elkisch, 1948; Shaw, 1934) and the various approaches to interpreting these productions (Machover, 1949/1980). The impact of psychoanalysis on the early development of art therapy was pro-found. Hammer's (1958/1980) classic book on drawing as a projective device illustrates the diversity within this area and the inclusion of two chapters on art therapy by pioneering art therapist Margaret Naumburg demonstrates the crossover of influences. Many of the more common stereotypes about art therapy (specific, assigned drawings; finger painting; and the role of the therapist in divining the â€Å"true meaning† of the drawings) can, in fact, be traced directly to this era. Nearly all the major art therapy writers from this time developed their own methods of assessment consisting of batteries of art tasks with varying levels of structure (Kramer & Schehr, 1983; Kwiatkowska, 1978; Rubin, 1978/1984; Ulman & Dachinger, 1975/1996). Even today, the notion that artworks in some way reflect the psychic experience of the artist is a fundamental concept in art therapy. Despite this common history, there are distinctions between the approach to assessment used in psychology and that found in art therapy. The key difference is the art therapy perspective that the making and viewing of the art have inherent therapeutic potential for the client, a position not necessarily held by psychometricians. In addition, art therapists tend to use more varied and expressive materials and to deemphasize formalized verbal directives and stress the role of clients as interpreters of their own work. Finally, art therapists are also quite likely to improvise on the pro-tocol of standardized assessments to uit a particular clinical purpose (Mills & Goodwin, 1991). An emerging theme in the literature is the unique role the creative arts therapies can play in the assessment and evaluation of clients (Bruscia, 1988; Feder & Feder, 1998). Contemporary developers of art therapy assessments have abandoned ortho-dox psychoanalytic approaches in favor of methods that emphasize the expressive potential 4 of the tasks and materials (Cohen, Hammer, & Singer, 1988; Cox Frame, 1993; Gantt & Tabone, 1997; Landgarten , 1993; Silver, 1978/1989). Early art therapy researchers also looked to psychology and embraced its empiri-cal approach for their research (Kwiatkowska, 1978). More recently, models from the behavioral sciences and other fields have been used as resources in conducting art therapy research (Kaplan, 2000; McNiff, 1998; Wadeson, 1992). THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ART THERAPY LITERATURE The development of any discipline is best traced through the evolution of that field's literature. The historian's convention of artificially dividing time into segments is employed here to illustrate three phases of growth in the profession of art therapy. Classical Period (1940s to 1970s) In the middle of the 20th century a largely independent assortment of individuals began to use the term â€Å"art therapy† in their writings to describe their work with clients. In doing so, these pioneering individuals began to define a discipline that was distinct from other, older professions. Because there was no formal art therapy training to be had, these early writers were trained in other fields and mentored by psychiatrists, analysts, and other mental health professionals. The four leading writers universally recognized for their contributions to the development of the field during this period are Margaret Naumburg, Edith Kramer, Hanna Kwiatkowska, and Elinor Ulman. The lasting impact of their original works on the field is demonstrated by the fact that their writings continue to be used as original sources in contemporary art therapy literature. More than any other author, Naumburg is seen as the primary founder of American art therapy and is frequently referred to as the â€Å"Mother of Art Therapy† (see Junge & Asawa, 1994, p. 22). Through her early work in the innovative Walden School, which she founded (along with her sister Florence Cane), and later in psychi-atric settings she developed her ideas and, in the 1940s, began to write about what was to become known as art therapy (Detre et al. , 1983). Familiar with the ideas of both Freud and Jung, Naumburg (1966/1987) conceived her â€Å"dynamically oriented art therapy† to be largely analogous to the psychoanalytic practices of the day. The clients' art productions were viewed as symbolic communication of unconscious material in a direct, uncensored, and concrete form that Naumburg (1950/1973) argued would aid in the resolution of the transference. While Naumburg borrowed heavily from the techniques of psychoanalytic practice, Kramer took a different approach by adapting concepts from Freud's personality theory to explain the art therapy process. Her â€Å"art as therapy† approach emphasizes the intrinsic therapeutic potential in the art-making process and the central role the defense mechanism of sublimation plays in this experience (Kramer, 1971/1993). Kramer's (1958, 1971/1993) work in therapeutic schools (as opposed to Naumburg's psychiatric emphasis) allows for more direct application of her ideas to educational settings. Ulman's most outstanding contributions to the field have been as an editor and writer. She founded The Bulletin of Art Therapy in 1961 (The American Journal of Art Therapy after 1970) when no other publication of its kind existed (Junge &c Asawa, 1994). In addition, Ulman (along with her coeditor Dachinger) (1975/1996) published the first book of collected essays on art therapy that served as one of the few texts in the field for many years. Her gift as a writer was to precisely synthesize and articulate complex ideas. In her essay â€Å"Art Therapy: Problems of Definition,† Ulman (1975/1996) compares and contrasts Naumburg's â€Å"art psychotherapy† and Kramer's â€Å"art as therapy† models so clearly that it continues to be the definitive presentation of this core theoretical continuum. The last of these four remarkable women, Kwiatkowska, made her major contributions in the areas of research and family art therapy. She brought together her experiences in various psychiatric settings in a book that became the foundation for working with families through art (Kwiatkowska, 1978). Like Kramer, she had fled Europe at the time of World War II adding to the list of emigre thinkers who influenced the development of mental health disciplines in the United States. She also coauthored a short book that helped introduce the field of art therapy to the general public (Ulman, Kramer, & Kwiatkowska, 1978). Each of these pioneers lectured widely on the topic of art therapy and served as some of the field's first educators. It was also during this period that the first formal programs with degrees in art therapy were offered (Junge Asawa, 1994; Levick, Goldman, & Fink, 1967). Finally, it is important not to forget the other early pioneers working in other parts of the country, such as Mary Huntoon at the Menninger Clinic (Wix, 2000), who made contributions to the developing profession as well. 6 Middle Years: Other Pioneering Writers (1970s to Mid-1980s) The 1970s through the mid-1980s saw the emergence of an increasing number of publications that presented a broader range of applications and conceptual perspectives (Betensky, 1973; Landgarten, 1981; Levick, 1983; McNiff, 1981; Rhyne, 1973/ 1995; Robbins & Sibley, 1976; Rubin, 1978/1984; Wadeson, 1980), although psychoanalysis remained a dominant influence. The development of the literature was also enriched during this period with the introduction of two new journals: Art Psychotherapy in 1973 (called The Arts in Psychotherapy after 1980) and Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy Association, in 1983 (Rubin, 1999). The in-creasing number of publications, along with the founding of the American Art Therapy Association in 1969, evolved the professional identity of the art therapist, credentials, and the role of art therapists vis-a-vis related professionals (Shoemaker et al. 1976). Contemporary Art Therapy Theories (Mid-1980s to Present) The art therapy literature continues to grow. In 1974, Gantt and Schmal published an annotated bibliography of sources relating to the topic of art therapy from 1940-1973 (1,175 articles, books, and papers), yet Rubin (1999) notes that in that same year there were only 12 books written by art therapists, a number that crawled to 19 some 10 years later. By the mid-1980s this pace began to incre ase so that there are now more than 100 titles available. Rubin (1999) also speculates that art therapists may be more comfortable with an intuitive approach than other mental health practitioners because as artists they â€Å"pride themselves on their innate sensitivities, and tend to be antiauthoritarian and anti-theoretical† (p. 180). Recently, approximately 21% of art therapists surveyed by the American Art Therapy Association described their primary theoretical orientation as â€Å"eclectic,† the single largest percentage reported (Elkins & Stovall, 2000). This position is in keeping with one delineated by Wadeson (in Rubin, 1987/2001) and should not be surprising in a field that itself draws from a variety of disciplines. The next five most frequently reported models: psychodynamic (10. 1%), Jungian (5. 4%), object relations (4. 6%), art as therapy (4. 5%), and psychoanalytic (3. 0%) all place a strong emphasis on intrapsychic dynamics, and this cumulative 27. 6% suggests that much contemporary practice is still informed by generally psychodynamic concepts (Elkins & Stovall, 7 2000). In a landmark book, Approaches to Art Therapy first published in 1987, Rubin (1987/2001) brought together essays by authors representing the diversity of theoretical positions within the field. Perspectives from these and other relevant sources are briefly summarized here. PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACHES The ideas of Freud and his followers (see Chapter 2, this volume) have been part of art therapy since the earliest days, although contemporary writers are more likely to apply terms such as â€Å"transference† and â€Å"the defense mechanisms† to articulate a position rather than employ classic psychoanalytic techniques ith any degree of orthodoxy. Kramer, Rubin, Ulman, and Wilson (all cited in Rubin, 1987/2001) and Levick (1983) all use psychoanalytic language and concepts. Interpretations of the newer developments in psychoanalysis such as the theories of Klein (Weir, 1990), self psychology (Lachman-Chapin) and object relations theory (Robbins) can also be found in the art t herapy literature (both cited in Rubin, 1987/2001). With his emphasis on images from the unconscious, it was natural for Jung's concepts of analytical and archetypal psychology to cross over into art therapy (see Chapter 2, this volume). Work by Edwards and Wallace (both cited in Rubin, 1987/ 2001), McConeghey (1986), and Schaverian (1992) all reflect this emphasis. HUMANISTIC APPROACHES Elkins and Stovall (2000) suggest that only a small number of art therapists operate from a humanistic position (among humanistic, Gestalt, existential, and client centered; the highest response was to the first category with 2. 9). Yet if these approaches can be defined as sharing â€Å"an optimistic view of human nature and of the human condition, seeing people in a process of growth and development, with the potential to take responsibility for their fate† (Rubin, 1987/2001, p. 119), these figures belie a sentiment held by many art therapists (see Chapter 3, this volume). Garai (cited in Rubin, 1987/2001) has written from a general humanistic position, Rogers (1993) and Silverstone (1997) use a person-centered model, and Dreikurs (1986) and Garlock (cited in Rubin, 1987) have adapted ideas first articulated by Alfred Adier. Other models that fall under the humanistic heading include existential (B. 8 Moon, 1990/1995), phenomenological (Betensky, 1995), and gestalt (Rhyne, 1973/1995) approaches. LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENTAL APPROACHES Perhaps because they are perceived to be mechanistic, those psychological theories that emphasize learning tend to be less popular with art therapists. In the Elkins and Stovall (2000) survey, cognitive-behavioral (see Chapter 6, this volume), cognitive, developmental (Chapter 8, this volume), and behavioral received an ndorsement of over 2%. Yet there are art therapy authors whose work has been informed by these theories. Silver (2000) has written extensively on assessment using a cognitive approach, and the work of Lusebrink (1990) and Nucho (1987) is based in general systems theory. Art therapists working with children with emotional and developmental disabilities have also adapted concepts from developmental (Aach-Feldman & Kunkle-Miller, cited in Rubin, 1987/2001; Willia ms & Wood, 1975) and behavioral psychology (Roth, cited in Rubin, 1987/2001). FAMILY THERAPY AND OTHER APPROACHES A number of writers (Landgarten, 1987; Linesch, 1993; Riley & Malchiodi, 1994; Sobol, 1982) have built on Kwiatkowska's early family work, particularly in California where art therapists become licensed as marriage and family therapists. Riley (1999) also incorporates concepts from narrative therapy into her work (Chapter 5, this volume). Relational (Dalley, Rifkind, & Terry, 1993) and feminist (Hogan, 1997) approaches question the hierarchy in the client/therapist relationship and empower-ing the client and have also shaped contemporary art therapy practice. Publications by Horovitz-Darby (1994), Farrelly-Hansen (2001), and McNiff (1992) reflect an emphasis on spiritual and philosophical concepts over psychological theory. Frank-lin, Farrelly-Hansen, Marek, Swan-Foster, and Wallingford (2000) describe a transpersonal approach to art therapy. Alien (1992) called for a reversal of the perceived trend in overemphasizing the clinical orientation and encouraged art therapists to refocus on their artist identity. Writings by Lachman-Chapin (1983); Knill (1995), who espouses an expressive arts therapies approach (Chapter 8, this volume); and C. Moon (2002) reflect this studio approach to theory and practice. 9 CONCLUSION Every art therapist knows there is much to be learned from the process of making an artwork as well as from standing back and viewing the finished product. The tapes-try that is art therapy is not a dusty relic hung in a museum but a living work in progress. There is pleasure in admiring the work that has already been done and excitement in the weaving. It is my hope that readers can appreciate the processes and the products that have shaped this profession. 10

Marxist Literary Criticism of Julius Caesar by william shakespeare Free Essay Example, 1000 words

Marxist Literary Criticism of Julius Caesar by William Shakespeare The Marxist concept of literacy criticism is not as popular as other methods of criticism. However, the method has found wide application in interpretation and understanding of Shakespeare’s work. The term Marxism was derived from Karl Marx who war was the first author to write a literacy criticism of Shakespeare’s work. Karl Marx was interested in the unique use of language and political satire that characterized Shakespeare’s work. Julius Caesar was a play written by William Shakespeare depicting the fall and assassination of the Roman dictator, Julius Caesar. This essay will therefore present a Marxist criticism of the play Julius Caesar by William Shakespeare. The main aspect of contradiction that comes out in the play is the political divide. The play depicts the struggle between socialism and capitalism. Although capitalism had been considered more fashionable than socialism, most scholars including Shakespeare declared their support for socialism. However, in the play Shakespeare does not declare a firm stand against capitalism. According to the play, Shakespeare seems to have divided view concerning capitalism. We will write a custom essay sample on Marxist Literary Criticism of Julius Caesar by william shakespeare or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/pageorder now In addition, Shakespeare does not make a firm stand on whether he is a proletarian or a capital owner. Capitalism was heading to a self-destruction due to the struggles that existed between different classes of people in a capitalist regime (Halliday, 1964). For instance, within a capitalistic regime, there was struggle between the middle class and industrial workers. Moreover, a capitalist regime was the source of conflict between middle class citizens and capital owners. Although Shakespeare considered these struggles as the source of destruction for capitalism, he was unable to prove the phenomenon through the play. His play illustrates the collaboration of capital owners and middle class citizens to launch a rebellion against the governing regime. In the play, Caesar compares himself as the northern star or the immortal person. However, the character does not play this role effectively since he dies before the play is completed. His self-declaration as an immortal being makes the audience believe that he plays an axial role in the play. Similarly, Brutus does not play his role effectively as an immortal character as earlier depicted. This depicts the struggles that have existed between capitalism and socialism and the human desire of creating a utopian sate (Halliday, 1964).